Pennsylvania College of Technology 
Williamsport, PA		 ENL 111 (Vavra) 
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Fallacies of Authority

Note: The black text is from Professor Downes;
my attempts at clarification are in brackets and dark blue.
      [Because they have been, or are just being, taught to cite authorities for research papers, students often find these two fallacies confusing . A simple question should clarify the problem -- how valid is the authority being cited? In the section on "Appeal to Authority," Professor Downes explains why citing some authorities may weaken, rather than strengthen your argument.  When you cite such authorities, you commit the "Appeal to Authority" fallacy.  In essence, an appeal to authority is an attempt to increase your ethos by using the ethos of the person whom you quote or paraphrase. If that person or statement lacks authority, your appeal is fallacious.
      Some fallacious appeals to authority are easy to identify; others are much more difficult. On the easy end of the continuum, we can simply ask such questions as how much do most athletes know about the products they advertise? In the middle range, we can look at the source of the information. Articles in professional journals are much more authoritative than are articles in magazines. Likewise, materials from the web sites of recognized professional organizations are much more authoritative than are those from personal web pages. The difficult end of the continuum involves professional, technical, and scientific authorities. As Downes notes, experts often disagree. As you continue in your education, you will come to learn which experts have strong reputations in your field, which are marginal, and which are outcasts.
     In doing research and citing authorities, you always want to keep an eye open for any information you can find about the authors of the texts you cite. Including brief descriptions of their credentials in your introduction to the information you got from them will increase both their and your ethos.]

Appeal to Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam ) [2]

    Definition: While sometimes it may be appropriate to cite an authority to support a point, often it is not. In particular, an appeal to authority is inappropriate if: (i) the person is not qualified to have an expert opinion on the subject, (ii) experts in the field disagree on this issue. (iii) the authority was making a joke, drunk, or otherwise not being serious A variation of the fallacious appeal to authority is hearsay. An argument from hearsay is an argument which depends on second or third hand sources.

    Examples:

      (i) Noted psychologist Dr. Frasier Crane recommends that you buy the EZ-Rest Hot Tub.
      (ii) Economist John Kenneth Galbraith argues that a tight money policy is the best cure for a recession. (Although Galbraith is an expert, not all economists agree on this point.)
      (iii) We are headed for nuclear war. Last week Ronald Reagan remarked that we begin bombing Russia in five minutes. (Of course, he said it as a joke during a microphone test.)
      (iv) My friend heard on the news the other day that Canada will declare war on Serbia. (This is a case of hearsay; in fact, the reporter said that Canada would not declare war.)
      (v) The Ottawa Citizen reported that sales were up 5.9 percent this year. (This is hearsay; we are not in a position to check the Citizen’s sources.)
    Proof: Show that either (i) the person cited is not an authority in the field, or that (ii) there is general disagreement among the experts in the field on this point. (Cedarblom and Paulsen: 155, Copi and Cohen: 95, Davis: 69)
Anonymous Authorities [1]
    Definition: The authority in question is not named. This is a type of appeal to authority because when an authority is not named it is impossible to confirm that the authority is an expert. However the fallacy is so common it deserves special mention. A variation on this fallacy is the appeal to rumour. Because the source of a rumour is typically not known, it is not possible to determine whether to believe the rumour. Very often false and harmful rumours are deliberately started in order to discredit an opponent.

    Examples:

      (i) A government official said today that the new gun law will be proposed tomorrow.
      (ii) Experts agree that the best way to prevent nuclear war is to prepare for it.
      (iii) It is held that there are more than two million needless operations conducted every year.
      (iv) Rumour has it that the Prime Minister will declare another holiday in October.
    Proof: Argue that because we don’t know the source of the information we have no way to evaluate the reliability of the information. (Davis: 73)

This border is adapted from
Domenico Ghirlandaio's
(1449-1494)
Saint Jerome in his Study
1480, fresco, Church of Ognissanti, Florence
Carol Gerten's Fine Art http://metalab.unc.edu/cgfa/

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