Definitions

        When we look at how they function, every verb functions either as a finite verb (a core verb in a clause) or as a verbal. There are absolutely no exceptions. One of the reasons that students find the term useful is that it helps them learn to distinguish the form from the function of verbs. When they are learning to recognize finite verbs, for example, they may run across a sentence such as They found the box locked. Some students will recognized locked as a verb and want to underline it twice. Simply telling these students that locked does not function as a finite verb here does not satisfy them -- they want to know what it is. In essence, they want a name for it. I tell them that it is a verbal, and that we will study verbals later. Middle and high school students who are analyzing real texts will run across a fair number of verbals, so the term becomes a short-cut for a long explanation that, at this point in their work, would only confuse them. Once they get to verbals, the term again serves to clarify what they are doing because every verbal must be a gerund, a gerundive, or an infinitive. Again there are no exceptions.
        Traditional grammar uses "participle" to denote both this form and the gerundive function, thereby creating confusion. In the sentence "John was writing to Bill," "writing" is a participle -- in its form. In "Writing is important," "Writing" is a participle -- in its form. In working with students, KISS Grammar uses the term "participle" to refer to the "-ing," "-ed," "-en" etc. form of verbs.
        Gerunds are participles that function as nouns; gerundives are participles that function as adjectives; infinitives can function as nouns, as adjectives, or as adverbs. Like finite verbs, verbals have subjects and complements -- they create nexal patterns.
        A gerund is thus simply a participle that functions as a noun.  Theoretically, and probably in practice, a gerund can function in any way that a noun can -- as a subject, a complement, an object of a preposition, etc. The subject of a gerund is expressed as a possessive ("Sally's sending that letter was surprising."), but often the subject of a gerund is ellipsed. Consider, for example, the statement "Swimming is good exercise." Everyone who hears or reads this will understand that it applies to people's swimming; it does not apply to worm's.
        KISS presents, and thus emphasizes, gerundives as participles that function as adjectives. It is true that gerundives also have an adverbial function, and some traditional grammarians can come up with a few examples in which the adverbial function is almost more important than the adjectival. KISS emphasizes the adjectival function, however, because misplaced or dangling modifiers are usually the results of students' missing the adjectival function of the gerundive. The subject of a gerundive is the word the gerundive modifies.
        The KISS infinitive is basically the same as that in most traditional grammars, but the KISS Approach does not try to define the infinitive. Students can be told to look for the "to" which signals many infinitives, but students ultimately learn to identify infinitives by the process of elimination -- if a verbal is not a gerund or a gerundive, it has to be an infinitive. Based on the linguistic concept of embedding, and on Jespersen's nexus, KISS extends the "traditional" infinitive to eliminate the whole problem of "objective" and "subjective" complements. It does so by analyzing the relevant phrases as infinitive phrases with the infinitive "to be" ellipsed. This modification, which is based on the concept of deep and surface structure in transformational/generative grammars, not only reduces the number of concepts that students must deal with, but it also better aligns the grammatical explanations with the meanings of the sentences.
        Consider the following sentences:

1.) They wanted Sam to win the game.
2.) They elected Sarah president.
3.) Mary held the door open.

1.) They wanted something.
        [The something is that Sam wins the game.]

2.) They elected something.
        [The something is that Sarah is president.]

3.) Mary held something.
        [The something is that the door is open.]

When (Ideally 10th Grade)

         Verbals, as noted previously in this chapter, are most easily identified by using the process of elimination. Once the identification of clauses has become automatic for students, they can turn their focus to the three types of verbals. Not much can be done, stylistically, in manipulating gerunds and infinitives, but gerundives are much more flexible.

         Students should add to their now considerable conscious analytical abilities the ability to recognize all verbals and their subjects and complements.

Memorization Required:

        None. The instructional material (below) for Level Four should be studied and used, but it need not be memorized.
 

        Some teachers may want to start with three separate exercises, one each on gerunds, gerundives, and infinitives. Each exercise could be preceded by a short definition, and then the students could be given ten or so sentences in which they are to find the verbals. In so doing, however, the students should be instructed to follow the usual KISS analytical procedure, first finding the prepositional phrases, etc. Otherwise, some students will mark parts of finite verbs as verbals.  Personally, I do not use this type of exercise. My students simply continue to analyze passages, and simply add verbals to their analytical tools. The usual KISS procedure of using randomly selected texts may, however, have to be modified -- not all texts contain numerous gerunds and gerundives.

Assessment:

        Short quizzes, as in the previous levels.

Class Time Required:

        Without the introductory exercises, most students can learn to recognize verbals by reviewing homework in two or three 50-minute class periods. This assumes that the students are comfortable with analysis at the earlier KISS levels. As a result, they will analyze most of each sentence very quickly, and then simply check to see if there are any verbs that they have not underlined twice. If there are, they apply the instructional material.
        In using class time to review homework at this level, teachers need to make a judgment. If their students are very comfortable analyzing prepositional phrases, S/V/C patterns, and clauses, the review can simply focus on the verbals. The KISS Grammar Game, for example, can be modified such that a "turn" consists of identifying a verbal. The next turn involves identifying its subject; the next, its complements. If a sentence has no verbals, the team whose turn it is can get the point by simply stating so. Clearly this approach would save a lot of class time. If, however, the students are still not comfortable with S/V/C patterns and clauses, then these should be included in the in-class review.

Gerunds as Subjects

         Some students have problems using gerunds as subjects. Often, they place the subject in a prepositional phrase ("By simply making the request that the ladies wear longer skirts is not asking too much.")  For many students, this problem can be alleviated at Level Two, since the student will find no subject for the verb. Teachers may, however, want to discuss gerunds as subjects, give the students a few sentences as examples, and then ask the students to write a few of their own.

Style

         Verbals are involved in two somewhat common errors, but the KISS Approach will have addressed both before students get to Level Four. The first of these is the gerund that should be a subject but is instead stuck in a prepositional phrase. For example, one student wrote, "By simply making the request that the ladies wear longer skirts is not asking too much." With the prepositional phrases in parentheses, when students look for subjects and verbs (Level Two), they will not find them in sentences such as this, and thus will see and be able to correct the problem. The other problem is the dangling participle, but the KISS emphasis on every word having to chunk to another word in the sentence allows teachers to address this problem without specifically discussing gerundives.
        Beyond the matter of correctness, there is, of course, that of flexibility. Most of the questions here revolve around the gerundive. The use of gerunds and infinitives often depends on subject matter and logic. (See below.) Gerundives, because they are often reductions of subordinate clauses, are often interchangeable with them, and they do add a distinct flavor of maturity to writing. The research and theory both suggest that gerundives are late-blooming, but teachers of ninth graders or above might want to try to get students to use some gerundives in their writing.
        One way to do this would be to expand the combining exercises discussed in the preceding chapter. It might be a good idea to get to gerundives through clauses. For example, the exercise might center on: "Rose Valley Lake is a picturesque lake. It is nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania." The following example also includes expanding these exercises to include appositives.

1. Rewrite the sentence using a colon, semicolon or a dash. Indicate whether your version reflects amplification (formal or informal) or contrast.

Rose Valley Lake is a picturesque lake: it is nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania. [amplification - formal]

Rose Valley Lake is a picturesque lake -- it is nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania. [amplification - informal]

Use a subordinate conjunction to combine the two sentences to establish the indicated logical connection and focus.

2. Focus on "picturesque lake"; logical connection = identity

Rose Valley, which is nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania, is a picturesque lake.

Rose Valley, which is a picturesque lake, is nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania.

Rose Valley Lake is a picturesque lake because it is nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania.
 

5. With a focus on "picturesque lake" and a logical connection of identity, combine the sentences using a gerundive.

Rose Valley Lake, nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania, is picturesque.

6. With a focus on "is nestled" and a logical connection of  identity, combine the sentences using an  appositive.

Rose Valley, a picturesque lake, is nestled in a lovely valley in North Central Pennsylvania.

Logic

        In both The Making of Meaning and Forming--Thinking--Writing, Ann E. Berthoff often discusses the connections between syntax and logic. Those connections are often conveyed by verbals, but we still have much to learn about precisely what is involved. The problem here goes beyond the purely syntactic into the cognitive. The following two college students' revisions of the Aluminum passage may illustrate what I mean.

        Aluminum is an abundant metal, which has many uses. It comes from an ore that looks similar to clay called Bauxite. Aluminum is one of several substanes contained in Bauxite. They have to grind the bauxite. Next the Bauxite is put into pressurized tanks. In these tanks the other substances form a mass, the mass is removed using filters. Only a liquid remains. It is then put through several other processess until it yeilds a powdery white chemical. This white chemical, Alumina, is actual a mixture which contains aluminum and oxygen. The Aluminum is then seperated from the oxygen using electricity, a metal has been produced. This metal is light and is bright silver. Aluminum comes in many different forms.

        Aluminum is an abundant metal that comes from Bauxite, an ore that looks like clay and contains aluminum, along with several other substances. Workman extract the other substances from the Bauxite by grinding it and putting it in high pressure tanks. The other substances form a mass which the workman use a filter to remove, leaving only a liquid remaining. The liquid that remains is put through several other processes and then yields a powdery white chemical, which contains aluminum and, called alumina. Electricity is used by the workman to separate the aluminum from the oxygen. A light metal is produced. The metal has bright, silvery luster, comes in many forms and has many uses.

Directions:
1. Put parentheses (   ) around each prepositional phrase in the text.
2. Underline subjects once, finite verbs twice, and label complements (PN, PA, IO, DO).
3. Place brackets around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label its function (PN, IO, DO, OP) above the opening bracket. If it functions as an adjective or adverb, draw an arrow from the opening bracket to the word that the clause modifies.
4. Put at vertical line at the end of every main clause.
5. Put a box around every gerund and gerundive. If it is a gerund (i.e., it functions as a noun) indicate its function over the box. If it is a gerundive, draw an arrow to the word it modifies.
6. Put an oval around every infinitive and indicate (as in three above) its function.

        In analyzing sentences, you have probably seen many verbs that were not finite (that you did not underline twice).  You are now ready to add these words, which are called verbals, to your analytical capabilities.

        Any verb in a sentence that does not function as a finite verb has to function as one of the three verbals:

Gerunds always function as nouns.

Subject: Swimming is good exercise.
Object of Preposition: Mary was thinking (about playing golf.)
Predicate Noun: The best hobby is reading.
Direct Object: They love skiing.

Having rested, the students went to the dance. ["Having rested" modifies "students."]
The book was on the table, closed and covered with dust. ["Closed" and "covered" modify "book."

Noun: To eat is what I want to do.
Adjective: This is a good place to rest.
Adverb: They came to play.

        The easiest way to identify infinitives is by the principle of exclusion: if a verb is not finite, not a gerund, and not a gerundive, then it has to be an infinitive. There is no other choice left. To add verbals to your analysis of a sentence, follow the regular KISS sequence of analysis. (Put parentheses around prepositional phrases, identify all S / V /C patterns, and put brackets around subordinate clauses.) Next check to see if there are any verbs in the sentence that are not finite. If there are, analyze them, one by one, using the following guidelines.

        First check to see if the verbal is a gerund.

        Both gerunds and gerundives have participial form. Infinitives do not.  ("Participle" designates the form of the word -- the "-ing," "-ed," "-en," etc. ending.)  You can thus distinguish gerunds and gerundives from infinitives by their form. Gerunds are verbals in participial form which function as nouns. Notice that you have already been explaining gerunds. You have simply been considering them as subjects, direct objects, objects of prepositions, etc., without knowing that they are also gerunds.

        If the verb does not function as a gerund, see if it is a gerundive.

        Thus far, you have NOT been explaining gerundives. A gerundive is participial in form, but functions as an adjective. Therefore, you need to find the noun or pronoun that it modifies.

        If the verbal is not a gerund or gerundive, then it must be an infinitive.

        The "to" with many infinitives helps, but not all infinitives include the "to." If the verbal is an infinitive, determine whether it functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

        The similarity of verbals to finite verbs is often overlooked in pedagogical grammars. Verbals are condensed, or reduced versions of the basic sentence pattern. Like finite verbs, they have subjects and complements.
        The subject of a gerund is expressed as a possessive noun: "The crickets’ chirping kept me awake." If the gerund denotes a general action, performable by anyone, the subject is usually ellipsed: "*Anyone’s* swimming is good exercise." This expanded sentence sounds strange, and indeed it is: we have become accustomed to ellipsis. But when the subject of a gerund is ellipsed, it is always there, understood. Note, for example, that no one would interpret "worms" as the subject of the sentence, but who would not accept deer or dogs?
        Since a gerundive is a verb that functions as an adjective, the subject of a gerundive is the noun or pronoun it modifies. It is that simple.
        The subject of an infinitive, if expressed, is in the objective case. This question of case is meaningful only in relation to pronouns ("Let us go"), because nouns in English no longer show a distinction in case. Frequently, the subject of an infinitive is simply understood: in "Bill wanted to see the museum" it is clear that Bill wanted Bill to see the museum, otherwise the subject of the infinitive would have been supplied: "Bill wanted them to see the museum."

        Logically, complements of verbals would seem to need little discussion. But people well-trained in grammar are often surprised to realize that verbals can have complements just as finite verbs have. These complements can be found and distinguished in the same way that one finds and distinguishes the complements of finite verbs, i.e., by making a question with "what or whom" after the verbal.

        Consider the following sentences:

1.) They wanted Sam to win the game.
2.) They elected Sarah president.
3.) Mary held the door open.

1.) They wanted something.
     [The something is that Sam wins the game.]

2.) They elected something.
     [The something is that Sarah is president.]

3.) Mary held something.
     [The something is that the door is open.]