A verbal is a verb that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In KISS Level Two (S/V/C patterns) students needed to learn how to distinguish finite verbs from non-finite, i.e., from verbals. Theoretically, a detailed study of verbals could immediately follow students’ mastery of S/V/C patterns, but there are two reasons for postponing such instruction. First, clause structure is much more important for an understanding of how sentences work. Second, there is a fair amount of both research and theory that suggests that one verbal (gerundives) is, to use Kellogg Hunt’s label, a “late-blooming” construction. KISS Level Four first appears in the sixth "grade-level" book, but this may be too early for some students.

      Like finite verbs, verbals can have complements, are modified by adverbs, and have implied or stated subjects. Verbals are probably best learned if the single page of instructional material on them (“Identifying Verbals”) is simply added to the students’ analytical toolbox. Thus, students should continue to analyze and discuss sentences and passages from real texts—identifying prepositional phrases first, then S/V/C patterns, then clauses, and simply adding the identification of verbals. Such an approach enables students to see how various writers use verbals in a wide range of sentences. If there is time for such instruction, teachers can focus on the sentence-combining and other sentence manipulation exercises.
     The exercises on verbals are divided into four sections, comparable to the presentation of subordinate clauses (KISS Level 3.1). In that section, mixed subordinate clauses were introduced first. Thereafter, special focus was put on subordinate clauses as direct objects, then on adverbial clauses, then adjectival, and then on other noun clauses. Some students probably did not need most of the materials in the special focus sections. You may or may not have used the punctuation, stylistic, and/or logic-focused exercises in those special focus sections.
     Similarly, some students may easily master all three types of verbals by simply using the section on "Mixed Verbals." If they have problems, you can use the identification exercises in the three specific sections -- gerunds, gerundives, and infinitives. You should, however, take the specific sections in that sequence. Gerunds are relatively easy to identify. With gerunds basically mastered, gerundives are more easily understood. Finally, infinitives are most easily identified by the process of elimination—if a verbal is not a gerund and not a gerundive, it must be an infinitive. Infinitives are the most complex of the verbals, so you may want to at least browse that section before you decide to skip it.
 

Suggested General Directions for Analytical Exercises: 1. Put parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.  2. Underline subjects once, finite verbs twice, and label complements (“PN,” “PA,” “IO,” “DO”).  3. Place brackets around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label its function ("PN," "IO," "DO," "OP") above the opening bracket. If it functions as an adjective or adverb, draw an arrow from the opening bracket to the word that the clause modifies. 4. Put a vertical line at the end of every main clause. 5. Put a box around every gerund and gerundive. If it is a gerund (i.e., it functions as a noun) indicate its function over the box. If it is a gerundive, draw an arrow to the word it modifies.  6. Put an oval around every infinitive and indicate (as in three above) its function.

4.1 Mixed Exercises

    The three types of verbals can easily be taught simultaneously. Students who have been learning through the KISS Approach will recognize gerunds by their functions, i.e., they will see that they have already been labeling these words as subjects, direct objects, objects of prepositions, etc. Thus gerundives are best learned through the process of elimination—any verbs that end in “-ing,” “-ed,” or a few irregular forms (such as “written”) that are not finite and that do not function as gerunds are almost certainly gerundives. Any verb that is not finite, not a gerund, and not a gerundive, has to be an infinitive. There are no exceptions to this descriptive rule.
     You can, if you wish, slow the introduction of new material down by having students first do one or two exercises that focus separately on gerunds, gerundives, and then infinitives. Any randomly selected text will almost certainly contain a variety of clauses, main and subordinate. Verbals, however, are used less frequently. To be sure that there are verbals in the exercise text, you may therefore want to start with some of the exercises in this section.

The Exercises on "Mixed Verbals"

     Section One (four exercises) give students sentences with a variety of verbals and ask students to identify the type (gerund, gerundive, or infinitive) of the verbal and any complements.Section Two (one exercise) focuses on the subjects of verbals. The subjects of gerunds are in possessive case:

Mixed - 4 - Style - A Sentence-Combining Exercise

     Gerunds are the simplest verbals to understand. There are only two problems that I have seen students have with them. The first is in writing. Some students have trouble with gerunds as subjects. Thus, instead of writing "Playing baseball taught me a lot," you may get sentences such as "By playing baseball taught me a lot." KISS helps students with this problem back in  Level 1.5. - Adding Simple Prepositional Phrases. There students were taught to put prepositional phrases in parentheses, and if they did that with "By playing baseball," they found that they did not have a subject for "taught." The second problem is not just analytical -- it may involve reading skills. Instead of seeing "Playing" as the subject of our sample sentence, some students may argue that "baseball" is the subject. Usually, one or two other examples of gerunds as subjects convince such students. For example, "Watching people is educational." Most students will agree that the verb here should be "is" and not "are." In addition, students easily see that "People is educational" is not what the sentence means. Thus the gerund "Watching" is the subject.

The Exercises on Gerunds

     Section One includes two exercises that focus on identification. Section Two (one exercise) provides more practice with the subjects of gerunds. Section Three is an exercise on a construction that frequently raises questions. In a sentence such as "They went hunting," how does one explain "hunting"? In KISS, we simply consider it to be a gerund that functions as a Noun Used as an Adverb. (Gerunds can function in any way that a noun can.) Section Four is  a "Treasure Hunt."
 

     Gerundives are the most important verbal for students to study. You will not find the term "gerundive" in most, if any, current grammar textbooks—they use the term "participle." But the problem with the term "participle" is that it refers to the form, not the function, of gerundives. In "They were playing in the park," for example, "playing" is a participle, but it is part of the finite verb phrase. In "Playing in the park, they had a good time," "Playing" is also a "participle" in form, and it is so explained in  most textbooks. But in this case "Playing" functions as an adjective to "they." Using one term for two different functions confuses both students and some teachers. 
     Gerundives also have an adverbial function, but KISS focuses on their adjectival function for the simple reason that misplaced (sometimes called "dangling") modifiers are almost always the result of students not seeing the adjectival function of gerundives. For example, a student wrote "Thrown from the car, he saw her lying on the ground." The student meant that she had been thrown from the car, but most readers would see "Thrown" as chunking to "he."

The Exercises on Gerundives

     Section One (two exercises) simply helps students identify gerundives and their adjectival function. Section Two (one exercise) is a passage for analysis that can be used for the same purpose. The stylistic possibilities of gerundives raise the question of whether or not gerundive phrases should be set off by commas. Some textbooks either say or imply that they should be, especially when they come at the beginning of a sentence. You will find, however, that many writers do not follow these rules. Section Three (one exercise) invites students to explore this punctuation question.
     Sections Four, Five, and Six focus on style. Stylistically, understanding gerundives is far more important than understanding either gerunds or infinitives. Gerundives offer more stylistic options. Consider the sentence:

Macbeth (5.5.23-27) "Life's but a walking shadow"	AK	ToC	G8
This is the famous "sound and fury" passage. It includes two gerundives, an appositive, and a post-positioned adjective.

Shadow Rabbits (Humor)

Original

AK

ToC

G7

* RobertSouthey, "The Cataract of Lodore"

AK

ToC

G6-11; IG6

     Infinitives cannot be manipulated in the way that gerundives can be, and, if students use the analytical method (sequence) for identifying the types of verbals, they will have few problems with them. The workbooks, however, include more exercises on infinitives than they do on gerundives because unlike gerundives, which can always be explained as adjectives, infinitives can function as adjectives, adverbs, or in almost any way that a noun can. Because you will not find all of these functions in any given text, the workbooks include exercises that focus on the various functions.

The Exercises on Infinitives

     Section One (two exercises) focuses on identifying all the functions (noun, adjective, or adverb) of infinitives. Section Two (one exercise) provides practice on the subjects of infinitives.
Section Three provides an exercise on infinitives as subjects and/or complements -- "To know her is to love her." And, because they are relatively rare, Section Four explores infinitives that function as objects of prepositions, as in "They could do nothing but laugh." Section Five (two exercises) focuses on infinitives that function as adjectives or adverbs.
     In Section Six, two exercises are devoted to "ellipsed infinitives." These are important analytically for students' ability to understand and discuss sentence structure. Most grammar textbooks include explanations of "objective" and "subjective" complements, two concepts that I have never been able to understand because different books explain them differently. For example, in the sentence